There are several dimensions of studies and research on Jammu and Kashmir.  — Vinod Johri

Kashmiri scholars/Monks in Xinjiang China 

Kashmir was an eminent centre of Buddhist learning and attracted Buddhist scholars, monks and pilgrims from Xinjiang and adjoining territories. Kashmiri scholars and monks were held in high esteem in Xinjiang and China. Young men from Kashgar, Khotan, Kucha and other places would come to Kashmir for higher learning. A long line of Kashmiri monks and scholars, ‘who combined at the same time a high standard of learning, both linguistic and exegetic, with an audacity of explorers (Naudou, Jean, Buddhists of Kashmir, Agam Kala, Pg. 3) played a pivotal role in spreading Buddhism in Xinjiang, Central Asia and China through the translation of Buddhist teachings and texts into Chinese. They introduced and propagated Buddhist art and literature through the translations of Scriptures in China. 

The Mahavibhasa (The Great Exegesis) is a ‘compilation established by teachers in Kashmir’. Its summary was translated into Chinese in AD 383 by Kashmiri named Sanghbadra, whose name in Chinese transitions is given as Chi- to-Pani. The first Chinese translation of Gathas was made by a Kashmiri scholar Dharmatrata in AD 221-23. Harivarman, a famous Saraswativadi Scholar of Kashmir composed his work Satyasiddhi Shastra in AD 253. 

Sanghabhuti is said to be the first Buddhist scholar who went to China in AD 381 and remained there till his death (Kaul, Advaitvadini, Buddhist Servants of Kashmir, Sagar Publications, 1987, p-24). His name in Chinese transcription is given as Seng-kia-pocheng, and in translation it is Chang Hein. His most important work is commentary on Vinaya Pitaka full of Saraswativada School.

Gautama Sanghadeva was a Kashmiri Buddhist scholar specialising in Abhidharma. He reached China in AD 383, when Sang Bhuti was still working there (Kaul, Advaitvadini, Buddhist Servants of Kashmir, Sagar Publications, 1987, p-25). He later went to South China and translated several texts into Chinese, with the assistance of his Chinese and Kashmiri followers. 

Punyatrata was a Buddhist scholar from Kashmir, who reached China around AD 399-415. He worked in Kucha with Kumarjiva and translated several important works. 

Dharmayasas was another Kashmiri Buddhist, known as Fo-Cheng in Chinese. He was a pupil of Punyatrata. He went to Xinjiang and onwards to China somewhere between ad 397-401. He was in Changan during AD 405-414 and translated several works into Chinese. He is reported to be to have returned to Xinjiang later.  

Kumarajiva was the most eminent Buddhist scholar, who broke geographical, cultural, linguistic and political barriers for propagation of Buddhism. He was the son of a Kuchean Princess Jiva and a Kashmiri Brahmin Kumarayana. His father had renounced his ministership in Kashmir to become a monk and had left Kashmir for Kucha. Kumarajiva was named by combining the names of his parents. He was taken it to Kashmir by his mother at the age of nine to study Buddhist literature and philosophy. He stayed there for three years studying Madhyama Agama and Dirgha Agama under a well-known master named Bandudatta. He then returned to Kucha along with his mother. Many Kashmiri monks and scholars are reported to have accompanied Kumarjiva to Kucha. En route, he reportedly stayed at Kashgar and studied Abhidharma. He went to Kucha and learnt Saraswativada from his Kashmiri master Vimalaksha.

Within a few years, Kumarjiva attained fame as a scholar and attracted other Buddhist scholars from Kashgar, Khotan, Yarkand other parts of China. When Kumarajiva was in Kucha, the Chinese Emperor Fu-kien sent an envoy to the Kuchean ruler, requesting him to send the celebrated monk to China. On the refusal of the Kuchean ruler, the Chinese Emperor sent forces to subdue him. Kumarajiva was taken to the Chinese capital Changan in AD 401. He was warmly received by the Chinese emperor. Kumarajiva organised the Sutra Translation Bureau (Yyingyuan in Chinese) at Changan, where Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese. Over 800 scholars were attached to this bureau and a mammoth task of translation was undertaken under Kumarajiva’s leadership. He had a deep knowledge of Buddhist philosophy and in various schools. besides, having command over Sanskrit and Chinese. He had a large following among the Chinese Buddhists. He died in AD 413. Kumarjiva is a bridge between Kashmir and Xinjiang, and a strong symbol of cultural cooperation between India and China. 

Vimalaksha was a famous Kashmiri Sramana, who is known as Wu Ke yen in Chinese. He went to Kucha and studied in a Miracle Monastery, also known as Royal Vihara. Here he became known as Vinaya Master. He taught Vinaya to Kumarjiva. Vimalaksha stayed at Changan from AD 406 – 413, working with Kumarjiva. He translated in number of works. After Kumarajiva’s death, Vimalaksha went to South China, where he spent the rest of his life preaching Buddhism. 

Buddhayasas was a Kashmiri Scholar who went to Kucha. He is known by his Chinese name Fo-to-She. He first went to Kashgar at the invitation of its ruler, who had invited Buddhist monks on the religious occasion. Buddhayasas stayed at Kashgar for several years. Here he came in contact with Kumarjiva, who was travelling back from Kashmir to Kucha. Later, he joined Kumarjiva at Changan and helped translate several works into Chinese. It is believed that Buddhayasas returned to Kashmir after Kumarajiva’s death. 

Dharmamitra was another Kashmiri Buddhist monk who first went to Kucha and then travelled to other areas of Xinjiang. His name is mentioned in Chinese transcription as Tan-mo-muts and in Chinese translation as Fa Siu. He went to Dunhuang in AD 424 and founded a monastery there.  

Chinese Pilgrims in Kashmir 

Kashmiri monks, missionaries and scholars would visit the Buddhist centres in various towns in southern Xinjiang and mainland China. Similarly, Chinese pilgrims and scholars also traversed long distances through the inhospitable desert and high mountains to reach Kashmir in their quest for knowledge. This vibrant exchange of erudition  between Kashmir and Xinjiang continued at least till the tenth century AD, before the Arab and Turk invaders destroyed Buddhism in Xinjiang. 

Chinese scholars who felt the death of authentic Indian texts for the propagation of Buddhism in China travelled to India in search of these texts. Prof. Tan Chung has pointed out that Hiuen Tsang (Xuan Zhang’s) self-appointed mission is for ever remembered in China as Xitiunqujing, i.e. “obtaining sutras from Western Heaven-India (Chung, Tan, Ageless Brotherhood Between India and China), Indian Horizons, Vol, 43, Nos.1-2, 1994, p. 15).Chinese pilgrims played a key role in exchanges between ancient India and China, and introduced Indian texts and doctrines to the Chinese monks.

Fa-Hien (AD 338-423) was born in Shanxi. He was a Buddhist monk since his early years. He embarked upon a pilgrimage to India, and land of Buddhism, ‘to seek the truth of Buddhist moral principles’. Accompanied by 10 other prominent monks, Fa-Hien left Changan in AD 399 for Khotan in Xinjiang, from where they crossed the mountain passes, to reach Kashmir Frontiers in Kia-Chha, near Ladakh and Baltistan. Kia cha mentioned in Fa-Hien’s Fe-Ku-Ki (account of Buddhist kingdoms), has been identified with Ladakh by Alexander Cunningham. Some Sinologists like Kalparoth equate it with Skardu (Baltistan). Thomas Watters agrees with Kalparoth. What is important is that Fa-Hien came along the silk route to Khotan thence to Tashkurgam and must have crossed the Pamirs to reach Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh (which already had strong trade and cultural connections with Xinjiang). 

Fi-Hien mentioned two relics of Buddha which he found in Kia-Chha. One of the them was bowl made of stone and other was a tooth of Buddha, which were preserved in a stupa. Fi-Hien also recorded the existence of over 1000 monks of Hinayana School attached to this stupa. Fi-Hien later moved on to Swat, Taxila, Gandhara and onwards to Central Asia, where he stayed for three years. He travelled widely, seeking Buddhist texts, studying religious rituals, practises and Sanskrit. In AD 410 Fi-Hien went to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and then returned to China via sea route. He carried with him the valuable Buddhist scriptures, he had brought from India. Fi-Hien had a Kashmiri Associate named Buddhajiva, who accompanied him on his return to China.

Che-Mong followed a Fi-Hien and started his journey along with fourteen companions from Changan in Ed 404 to Xinjiang and across the Pamirs to Kashmir. Only six of his associates are believed to have survived in this strenuous journey. Che-Mong and his colleagues stayed in Kashmir for a long time, after which they started on a pilgrimage to Buddhist shrines in India. He returned to China in AD 424 by the same route. 

Fa-Yong was another Chinese monk who came in AD 420, accompanied by a group of 25 monks. He travelled via Turfan, Kucha, Kashgar then over the Pamirs to reach Gilgit, from where he went to Kashmir. Fa-Yong and his colleagues spent a year in the valley studying Sanskrit and Buddhist traditions. He then returned to China by sea, also visiting holy places in India on his way back. 

Hiuen Tsang (Xuan Zhuang), the eminent Chinese Buddhist scholar came to India in search of further knowledge. He started his journey in AD 631 by the silk route and entered Kashmir via Hazara (Urusa). He stayed in his valley for two years studying Buddhist scriptures and literature. He was received by the full honours by the then ruler of Kashmir, who sent his nephew to escort Hiuen Tsang from Baramulla to his palace in Srinagar. The ruler himself, followed by a number of Buddhist monks and people, led Hiuen Tsang into the capital where he lodged in Jayendra Vihar. He was provided with 20 assistance to copy the sacred texts. Hiuen Tsang visited various Buddhist monasteries and stupas. He mentioned the existence of 100 monasteries in Kashmir with 5000 monks. He crossed into Poonch over the Tosa maidan route and went to Rajouri, Akhnoor, Sialkot and onwards to Nalanda.  Hiuen Tsang returned to Changan, China in AD 645 carrying with him a huge collection of Buddhist scriptures, statues, flower and plant seeds. He recorded his experiences and description of territories visited by him in his book Da Tang Xi Yu Ji (Records of the Western Regions in Tung dynasty). 

Ou-Kong came to Kashmir via Kabul and Gandhar in AD 759. He stayed in the valley for four years and learnt Sanskrit and Vinay from Kashmiri scholars. He has mentioned the existence of several viharas namely Mong Te, Amitabh Bhavan, Anand Bhavan, Ki-Tche, Nano-ye-Le, Jo-Jo, Yeli-Li-Te-Lo, Ko-toon etc.  He found over 300 shrines and stupas in Kashmir. 

Wu-Kong, another Chinese pilgrim, had come to Kashmir in AD 751 during the Tang period. He spent several years in Kashmir studying the Buddhist texts. He returned to China in AD 790. Even after the decline of Tang rule in China, the exchange of monks and pilgrims between India and China continued. According to the Song dynasty sources, in the 10th and 11th centuries, about 18 Indian monks arrived in China, 38 Chinese monks returned after visiting the Indians continent, a total of 1028 Indian texts were procured, and 564 scrolls of Buddhist sutras were translated into Chinese. 

Source - The Crossroads – Kashmir - India’s Bridge to Xinjiang by Kulbhushan Warikoo – P-ISBN – 978-93-5702-569-0